Browsing by Subject "Natural fracture"
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Item Development of peridynamics-based hydraulic fracturing model for fracture growth in heterogeneous reservoirs(2016-05) Ouchi, Hisanao; Sharma, Mukul M.; Olson, Jon E.; Foster, John T.; Espinoza, Nicolas; Kallivokas, Loukas F.Oil and gas reservoirs are heterogeneous at different length scales. At the micro-scale mechanical property differences exist due to mineral grains of different composition and the distribution of organic material. At the centimeter or core scale, micro-cracks, sedimentary bedding planes, natural fractures, planes of weakness and faults exist. At the meter or log scale, larger scale bedding planes, fractures and faults are evident in most sedimentary rocks. All these heterogeneities contribute to the complexity in fracture geometry. However, very little research has been conducted on evaluating the effect of these heterogeneities on fracture propagation, primarily due to the absence of a numerical framework capable of incorporating such heterogeneities in fracture growth models. In this dissertation we developed a novel method for simulating hydraulic fractures in heterogeneous reservoirs based on peridynamics and then utilized it to elucidate the complicated fracture propagation mechanisms in naturally fractured, heterogeneous reservoirs. Peridynamics is a recently developed continuum mechanics theory specially developed to account for discontinuities such as fractures. Its integral formulation minimizes the impact of spatial derivatives in the stress balance equation making it particularly suitable for handling discontinuities in the domain. No fluid flow formulation existed in the peridynamics framework since this theory had not been applied to fluid driven fracturing processes. In this dissertation, a new peridynamics fluid flow formulation for flow in a porous medium and inside a fracture was derived as a first step in the development of a peridynamics-based hydraulic fracturing model. In the subsequent section, a new peridynamics-based hydraulic fracturing model was developed by modifying the existing peridynamics formulation of solid mechanics and coupling it with the newly derived peridynamic fluid flow formulation. Finally, new shear failure criteria were introduced into the model for simulating interactions between hydraulic fractures (HF) and natural fractures (NF). This model can simulate non-planar, multiple fracture growth in arbitrarily heterogeneous reservoirs by solving fracture propagation, deformation, fracturing fluid pressure, and pore pressure simultaneously. The validity of the model was shown through comparing model results with analytical solutions (1-D consolidation problem, the KGD model, the PKN model, and the Sneddon solution) and experiments. The 2-D and 3-D interactions behavior between a HF and a NF were investigated by using the newly developed peridynamics-based hydraulic fracturing model. The 2-D parametric study for the interaction between a HF and a NF revealed that, in addition to the well-known parameters (the principal stress difference, the approach angle, the fracture toughness of the rock, the fracture toughness of the natural fracture, and the shear failure criteria of the natural fracture), poroelastic effects also have a large influence on the interaction between a HF and a NF if leak-off is high. The 3-D interaction study elucidated that the height of the NF, the position of the NF, and the opening resistance of the NF have a huge impact on the three-dimensional interaction behavior between a HF and a NF. The effects of different types of vertical heterogeneity on fracture propagation were systematically investigated by using domains of different length scales. This research clearly showed the mechanisms and the controlling factors of characteristic fracture propagation behaviors (“turning”, “kinking”, and “branching”) near the layer interface. In layered systems, the mechanical property contrast between layers, the dip angle and the stress contrast all play an important role in controlling the fracture trajectory. Each of these effects was investigated in detail. The effect of micro-scale heterogeneity (due to varying mineral composition) on fracture geometry was studied next. It was shown that even at the micro-scale, fracture geometry can be quite complex and is determined by the geometry and distribution of mineral grains and their mechanical properties.Item Experimental investigation of geomechanical aspects of hydraulic fracturing unconventional formations(2014-08) Alabbad, Emad Abbad; Olson, Jon E.Understanding the mechanisms that govern hydraulic fracturing applications in unconventional formations, such as gas-bearing shales, is of increasing interest to the petroleum upstream industry. Among such mechanisms, the geomechanical interactions between hydraulic fractures and pre-existing fractures on one hand, and simultaneous multiple hydraulic fractures on the other hand are seen of high importance. Although the petroleum engineering and related literature contains a number of studies that discusses such topics of hydraulic fracture interactions, there still remain some aspects that require answers, validations, or further supporting data. Particularly, experimental evidence is fairly scarce and keenly needed to solidify the understanding of such complex applications. In this work, the investigation methodology uses a series of hydraulic fracturing laboratory tests performed on synthetic rocks made of gypsum-based cements such as hydrostone and plaster in various experimental set ups. Those laboratory tests aim to closely investigate hydraulic fracture intersection with pre-existing fractures by assessing some factors that govern its outcomes. Specifically, the roles of the pre-existing fracture cementation, aperture, and relative height on the intersection mode are examined. The results show dominant effect of the cement-fill type relative to the host-rock matrix in determining whether hydraulic fracture crossing the pre-existing interface may occur. Similarly, hydraulic fracture height relative to the height of the pre-existing fracture may dictate the intersection results. However, the intersection mode seems to be insensitive of the pre-existing fracture aperture. Moreover, simultaneous multi-fracture propagation is examined and found to be impacted by the interference of the stresses induced from each fracturing source on neighboring fracturing sources. Such stress interference increases as the number of the propagating hydraulic fractures increase. While hydraulic fractures initiating from fracturing sources located in the middle of the fracturing stage seem to have inhibited propagation, outer hydraulic fractures may continue propagating with outward curvatures. Overall, the experimental results and analyses offer more insights for understanding hydraulic fracture complexity in unconventional formations.Item Fracture scaling and diagenesis(2012-12) Hooker, John Noel; Laubach, Stephen E. (Stephen Ernest), 1955-; Marrett, Randall; Eichhubl, Peter; Fomel, Sergey; Horton, Brian K; Ketcham, Richard A; Olson, Jon E; Sharp, John MSets of natural opening-mode fractures in sedimentary rocks may show a variety of types of aperture-size distributions. A frequently documented size distribution type, in the literature and in data presented here, is the power law. The emergence of power-law distributions of fracture aperture and length sizes has been simulated using various quasi-mechanical fracture-growth routines but models based on linear-elastic fracture mechanics rarely produce such patterns. I collected a fracture-size dataset of unprecedented size and resolution using core and field methods and scanning electron microscope-based cathodoluminescence (SEM-CL) images. This dataset confirms the prevalence of power laws with a narrow range of power-law exponents among fractures that contain synkinematic cement. Organized microfractures are ubiquitous in sandstones. A fracture-growth simulation I devised reproduces observed size-scaling patterns by distributing fracture-opening increments among actively growing fractures. The simulated opening increments have a uniform size, which can be specified; uniform opening size is consistent with observations of narrow ranges of micron-scale widths of opening increments within crack-seal texture in natural fractures. Thus power-law size scaling of natural fractures can be explained using non-power-law (uniform-sized) opening increments, arranged using rules designed to simulate the effects of cement precipitation during fracture opening. A fundamental shortcoming of previous models of fracture-set evolution is the absence of a test because only natural fracture end states, not growth histories, could be measured. Using a technique to constrain fracture timing based on fluid inclusion microthermometry and thermal history modeling, I tested growth models by reconstructing the opening history of a set of natural fractures in the Triassic El Alamar Formation in northeast Mexico. The natural-fracture data show that, consistent with simulations, new microscopic fractures are continually introduced during natural fracture pattern evolution. As well, larger fractures represent sites of concentrated reactivation, although smaller fractures may be reactivated after long periods of quiescence. The pattern likely arises through feedback between fracture growth and the mechanically adhesive effects of contemporaneous fracture cement deposition. The narrow range in power-law exponents documented among fractures can help improve estimates of meter-scale large-fracture spacing where limited fracture samples are available.Item Study of natural and hydraulic fracture interaction using semi-circular bending experiments(2014-05) Wang, Weiwei; Olson, Jon E.; Prodanović, Mas̆aHydraulic fracturing is an indispensable technique for developing unconventional resources such as shale gas and tight oil. When hydraulic fractures interact with pre-existing natural fractures, it can result in a complex fracture network. The interaction depends on in-situ stresses, rock and natural fracture mechanical properties, approach angle and hydraulic fracture treatment parameters. Most simulation studies treat natural fractures as frictional interfaces with cohesive properties. However, from core observation, partially cemented and fully cemented natural fractures are widely present and it is not clear whether they would fit the common description. In this study, semi-circular bending test is utilized to examine the propagation paths and strength of samples with pre-existing cemented fractures. Synthetic hydrostone samples are used to represent the rock and different inclusion slices with different mechanical properties are used to mimic cemented natural fractures. In a series of experiments, we assess the influence of the fracture approach angle, inclusion strength, and inclusion thickness on fracture propagation. Current results show that fractures tend to cross the inclusion when the approach angle is high and divert into the inclusion when the approach angle is low. The crossing surface is not a clean cut, but often has a jog distance. The thickness of the inclusion does not change the crossing/diverting behavior for orthogonal approaching samples, however it does change the jog distance along the interface. Preliminary simulation results using finite element software, ABAQUS, are presented better to analyze the experimental observations. The assessments of fracture interaction in this study are in good agreement with previous work and theories.