Browsing by Subject "Gender differences"
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Item The color of friendship : gender, race/ethnicity, and the relationships between friendship and delinquency(2009-08) Worthen, Meredith Gwynne Fair; Warr, Mark, 1952-Studies investigating the etiology of delinquent involvement have pointed to two influential theories: Differential Association Theory and Social Control Theory. Both theories suggest that bonding can impact delinquent behavior. Strong friend relationships influence delinquent involvement while strong parental relationships serve as a positive influence in the curtailment of adolescent delinquency. Indeed, a great deal of research has shown that both friends and families are an integral part of adolescent delinquent involvement. Although these theories provide us with a framework for understanding adolescent delinquency, the contextual nuances of the connections among friend relationships, parental relationships, and delinquency are still unclear. In this project, I investigate the gender and race/ethnicity of the respondent as well as the predominant race/ethnicity and gender of the respondents’ friendship networks to better understand how both friend and parent-child relationships affect adolescent delinquency. I utilize data from the Toledo Adolescent Relationships Study (TARS). Results suggest that both friend relationships and parental relationships impact respondent delinquency; however, such effects differ by the gender and race/ethnicity of the respondent. Furthermore, the predominant race/ethnicity and predominant gender of the respondents’ friendship network appear to effect delinquent involvement for some groups and not others. The exploration of this topic provides a much-needed look into some understudied areas in human behavior. The long-standing tradition of investigating the role of peers in criminal offending has certainly examined the importance of family and the dynamics of friendships. However, few studies have incorporated both gender and race/ethnicity in their investigations into the relationship between friendships and delinquency. In addition, this study is unique in that it examines friendship network characteristics and how they relate to delinquency. Furthermore, this project explores how family and friend influences on delinquent behavior vary across different groups. Neither of these aspects have been adequately explored in past research. It is the purpose of this study to being to fill this gap in the literature and highlight how both gender and race/ethnicity influence involvement in delinquency.Item Exploring the etiology of adolescent depression : a longitudinal approach to identifying effects of maternal and paternal depression(2013-12) Christopher, Caroline Heaton; Hazen, Nancy LynnAlthough there is evidence that children of depressed parents are far more likely to suffer from depression than other children (Hammen & Brennan, 2003), the majority of research examining links between parents’ depression and adolescent depression has focused on maternal depression, minimizing or ignoring the potential influence of paternal depression. Thus, the goals of the proposed study were 1) to examine both maternal and paternal depressive symptoms in relation to adolescents’ depressive symptoms over time, 2) to explore possible gender differences in how teens are affected by maternal versus paternal depressive symptoms, and 3) to investigate the role of parent-teen relationship quality. This study used data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, which includes measures of each parents’ depressive symptoms, taken when children were in 3rd, 5th, 6th, and 10th grades, and adolescent depressive symptoms measured at grades 5, 6, and 10. Results of path analyses using a cross-lagged panel design revealed that paternal depressive symptoms significantly predicted changes in adolescent depressive symptoms from grade 5 to 6 and 6 to grade 10. Although maternal depressive symptoms were not significantly associated with female adolescents’ depressive symptoms, mothers’ depressive symptoms predicted male adolescents’ depressive symptoms at grade 5. Models revealed a reciprocal influence of female adolescents’ depressive symptoms and paternal depressive symptoms. Furthermore, models of indirect effects suggest that the relationship of maternal depressive symptoms at grade 3 and male teens’ depressive symptoms had an enduring effect on males’ depressive symptoms through grades 6 and 10. This was also found for the association of paternal depressive symptoms and subsequent female teens’ symptoms. Finally, moderation analyses revealed a significant interaction of maternal depressive symptoms and mother-teen relationship quality predicting female teens’ subsequent depressive symptoms such that females who had high-quality relationships with highly depressed mothers were more likely to be depressed themselves, whereas female teens’ depressive symptoms were lowest if they had high quality relationships with mothers who reported low levels of depressive symptoms. The present study highlights the need for systems-based approaches to working with families in which one or more family members experience depressive symptoms.Item Insurmountable barrier or navigable obstacle? Gender differences in the construal of academia(2010-08) Jones, Sadé Margie; Swann, William B.; Bigler, RebeccaPsychologists have begun to examine factors that influence the achievement gap between African American and White students. This is a pressing issue especially for African American students (Steele, 1997; Shelton & Sellers, 2000; Cokley, 2001). To better understand the effects of race and gender on perceived discrimination and academic disengagement, 81 African American students at the University of Texas at Austin were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. Participants either listed ten instances of discrimination they have experienced, five academic successes and five academic failures, or made no lists. The impact of these manipulations on responses to the Disengagement Scale (Major & Schmader, 1998) and the Everyday Discrimination Scale (Williams, Yu, Jackson, & Anderson, 1997) were assessed. Results suggest that gender plays an important role in African American students’ academic function. More specifically, African American males perceive more discrimination in academia than African American females, which is related to higher levels of disengagement. Researchers suggest this difference is related to African American males’ socialization to see discrimination as an insurmountable barrier rather than a navigable obstacle.Item Investigation of gender stereotyping, stress, and coping strategies for women and men in female- and male-dominated occupations(2001) Williams, Esmé Patterson; McCarthy, Christopher J.The role of women is radically changing. Today, some women are entering male-dominated occupations. However, success and survival are not always easy for these women due to unique occupational stressors, such as negative gender stereotyping (Spence & Hahn, 1997: Glick & Fiske, 1997), gender saliency (Spangler, Gordon, & Pipkin, 1978; Davidson & Cooper, 1984), and gender overcompensation (Williams, 1989). Stress is currently perceived as the common cold of psychopathology because it can lead to depression, anxiety, mood disorders and other psychosomatic symptoms. The first purpose of the current study was to investigate the differences of gender stereotyping and stress for women and men in female- and male-dominated occupations. Second, the study examined which coping strategies women and men used when coping with a work-related stressful encounter. There were 103 participants who were presented with a work-related vignette of a stressful nature. They were asked how they would cope with the situation by using the Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 1986), as well as by writing in one to two paragraphs their coping strategy. Subsequently, participants completed a stress scale, Symptom Check List-90-R (Derogatis, 1977), Attitudes Toward Women Scale (Helmreich, Spence & Stapp, 1973), and a demographic questionnaire. From MANCOVA analyses which examined the differences between women and men, and the type of occupation (female- or male-dominated occupation), it was determined that there were significant differences between women and men on the coping strategies used. Other differences were not statistically significant.Item A longitudinal study of risk factors for adolescent depression : gender differences and pathways of risk(2005-08) Bearman, Sarah Kate; Stice, EricDespite consistent evidence that adolescent girls are at greater risk for developing depression than adolescent boys (Ge, Lorenz, Conger, & Elder, 1994; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987, 1990; Weissman, Leaf, Holzer, Myers, & Tischler, 1984), and that women continue to predominate among depressed adults throughout the lifespan (Kessler, McGonagle, Swartz, Blazer & Nelson, 1993), few studies have examined the etiologic risk factors that predict depression for adolescent girls using a prospective design or examined differential processes of risk in a sample of adolescent girls and boys. Furthermore, although a number of variables have been implicated as risk factors for depressive symptoms or onset of depression among adolescents, some methodological limitations exist. The objective of this research was to examine a set of risk factors suspected to predict depression in adolescents, and to test whether gender moderates these relations. Secondly, this study examined a set of risk factors proposed by the gender additive model of depression (Stice et al., 2000; Stice & Bearman, 2001) that attempts to partially explain the increased prevalence of depressive symptoms in adolescent girls compared to boys. Finally, exploratory classification tree analyses tested for interactions between risk factors that might signal differential pathways to depression. This research provides insight into the etiology of adolescent depression as well as the disparate rate of depression among adolescent girls versus boys, and also provides direction for identifying high-risk individuals and developing effective prevention programs.Item Measuring how stress impacts physical activity behaviors in undergraduates(2015-08) Born, Katelyn Ann; Bartholomew, John B.; Jowers, EsbellePURPOSE: To examine the effect of self-reported life stress on objective measures of physical activity. METHODS: Participants were a convenience sample of 98 undergraduates. Participants wore an ActiGraph GT1M Accelerometer for 6 consecutive days. Thirty participants were eliminated due to insufficient wear time (at least 8 hours/day). On each day of the week, they completed the Perceived Stress Scale. This was used to identify their highest and lowest stress day of the week excluding weekends. In addition, participants were divided according to their reports of consistent, exercise behavior. ANALYSIS: A 2 (gender) X 2 (day) RM-ANOVA was conducted to examine differences in time spent in MVPA. RESULTS: There was a significant interaction for gender, in that females increased their time spent in MVPA on their high stress day compared to their low stress day while males MVPA did not change, F (1, 66) = 7.55, p = .008. DISCUSSION: These results support findings by Lutz et al (2010), and extend it by using a sample with males and an objective measure of MVPA. Future studies should investigate the impact of exercise behavior on the relationship between stress and exercise.Item Post-deployment social support and social conflict in female military veterans(2010-08) Nayback-Beebe, Ann Marie; Yoder, Linda H.; Carter, Patricia A.; Harrison, Tracie C.; Angel, Jacqueline L.; Gaylord, Kathryn M.BACKGROUND: There have been prevailing gender differences in negative mental health outcomes for U.S. female service members (FSMs) returning from combat deployments with rates of depression and post-traumatic stress nearly twice that of their male peers. AIM: The aim of this research study was to examine the extent to which the absence or presence of social support, social conflict, and stressful life events either facilitated or hindered optimal mental health during the post-deployment period and shaped FSMs’ mental health in the context of the post-deployment experience. RESEARCH QUESTIONS: What was the nature of the relationship between social support, social conflict, and stressful life events and mental health symptoms (PTSD, depression, anxiety, and alcohol abuse) in FSMs after deployment to Iraq? And was the degree of social support or the degree of social conflict more highly associated with negative mental health symptoms (greater PTSD symptoms, greater depression symptoms, greater anxiety symptoms, and greater alcohol abuse symptoms) in FSMs after deployment to Iraq? THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: The theoretical framework for this study was derived from Vaux’s theory of social support (Vaux, 1988) and from a model developed by Berkman and Glass (2000) that hypothesized how social support and social networks have direct effects on an individual’s physical, mental, and social health. These two frameworks were viewed from a feminist standpoint perspective. METHODS: This descriptive, correlational, cross-sectional design used a convenience sample of 150 active duty FSMs who were 6-12 months post-deployment from Iraq and stationed at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. FINDINGS: During preliminary exploratory data analyses and statistical assumption testing, significant between group differences were found between the officer and enlisted FSMs on four variables: annual household income, stressful life events, education, and prior exposure to violence (physical assault, sexual assault, or domestic violence). Additionally, significant differences emerged in bivariate correlations between the predictor and outcome variables when the 13 officer FSMs were separated out from the original sample during statistical analyses. These findings suggested these were two distinct populations; therefore, the sample was divided into two groups based on rank. For the officer FSMs, there were no significant bivariate correlations between social support, social conflict, or post-deployment stressful life events and any of the mental health outcomes although a one-tailed analysis was conducted due to low sample size (n = 13). In contrast, the two-tailed analysis of the enlisted FSMs (n = 137) showed significant positive bivariate correlations (p < .01) between social conflict and stressful life events and the outcome variables depression, PTSD, and anxiety symptom severity. Furthermore, the analysis demonstrated a significant inverse correlation between social support and the outcome variables depression, PTSD, and anxiety symptom severity. Hierarchical linear regression of the enlisted FSM group showed that depression symptom severity was best explained by the presence of comorbid PTSD symptoms and the absence of social support. The presence of social conflict was excluded in the final model, and stressful life events were not found to be significant in explaining depression symptom severity. Overall, comorbid PTSD symptom severity and the absence of social support accounted for 71% of the variance in depression symptom severity in this group of enlisted FSMs. In contrast, greater PTSD symptom severity in the post-deployment period was best explained by greater comorbid depression symptom severity, the presence of social conflict, and greater stressful life events. The absence of social support did not significantly contribute to the model for PTSD symptom severity. Comorbid depression symptom severity, stressful life events, and the presence of social conflict, which were entered in three steps, accounted for 74% of the variance in PTSD symptom severity reported by this group of enlisted FSMs. And finally, greater anxiety symptom severity was best explained by greater comorbid depression symptom severity, the presence of social conflict, and the absence of social support. The presence of social conflict had a stronger relationship with anxiety symptom severity than the absence of social support in the final model. In addition, the presence of more stressful life events did not significantly contribute to the overall variance in anxiety symptom severity. Comorbid depression symptom severity, the absence of social support, and the presence of social conflict accounted for 68% of the variance in anxiety symptoms reported by this group of enlisted FSMs. The implications and recommendations based on these findings span strategic planning for the military, nursing practice, and future research.Item Small (but meaningful?) differences : the cumulative impact of gender on health for husbands and wives(2010-12) Crockett, Erin Earle, 1983-; Loving, Timothy J.; Gleason, Marci; Huston, Ted; Neff, Lisa; Vangelisti, AnitaThe cumulative risk model is used to explain the coexistence of small gender differences and large health disparities between husbands and wives. Specifically, the current model incorporates conflict (a risk factor), support (a protective factor), and coping (a moderator of the conflict-stress link) to predict cortisol slopes for newlywed husbands and wives. One hundred and seventy-two couples completed both global and daily measures of protective factors (empathy, responsiveness, and perceived support), risk factors (withdrawal, loyalty, self-silencing, and negativity), and coping (self-distraction, substance use, emotional support, and rumination). For the six days that participants provided daily reports of these constructs, participants also provided waking and evening saliva samples for later determination of salivary cortisol levels. I hypothesized that men would incur more protective factors than would women, and that these protective factors would be associated with steeper cortisol slopes (i.e., healthy cortisol slopes.) Further, I hypothesized that women would incur more cumulative risks than would men, and that these risks would be associated flatter cortisol slopes (i.e., unhealthy cortisol slopes). Finally, I hypothesized that the association between cumulative risk and cortisol slopes would be moderated by coping, such that theoretically-effective coping strategies would blunt the impact of cumulative risks whereas ineffective coping strategies would exacerbate the impact of cumulative risks. Support for these hypotheses was mixed. Women did incur fewer cumulative protective factors than did men; however, there were no gender differences in cumulative risks for this highly satisfied newlywed sample. The impact of both cumulative protection and cumulative risk on cortisol slopes differed for men and women. Coping moderated the impact of cumulative risk on daily cortisol slopes, but again these patterns were different for men and women. Future work must continue to isolate gender differences in relationship processes to understand resulting health implications. With further refinement, the proposed model can provide a more holistic explanation of gendered health disparities, and perhaps identify ways that women and men can experience more equivalent health benefits from romantic relationships.Item The effects of fatigue on landing characteristics in college female and male recreational athletes(Texas Tech University, 2005-08) Smith, Michael Patrick; Felstehausen, VirginiaThe purpose of the first study (Chapter II) was to investigate the effects of fatigue and gender on frontal plane knee motion during drop-jump landing. Additionally, neuromuscular and ground reaction force performance characteristics that are thought to be related to the control of frontal plane knee motion were also investigated. The purpose of the second study (Chapter III) was to examine the relationships between static anatomical structural characteristics and frontal plane knee motion. Alterations in these relationships during fatigue were also investigated. Design of Chapter II: A two factor mixed repeated measures design was used to evaluate the gender and fatigue effects. Subjects were tested in a pre-fatigue state and then again in a fatigued state. A 2 X 2 mixed design repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), with gender as the between-subjects factor and fatigue as the within-subjects factor, was performed. Fatigue, gender, and fatigue by gender interaction were tested at á = 0.05. Univariate F-tests of the dependent variables were undertaken to establish where significance was present. Design of Chapter III: A correlation matrix was constructed to determine the relationship among the dependent variables and between the dependent and independent variables. Following generation of the correlation matrix the two variables that showed the highest positive relationship were used in a linear regression model to determine the predictive value of the variables. Subjects: Twenty-six (14 women and 12 men) healthy active volunteers of average height and weight, between the ages of 18 and 35 years old, participated in the study. Measurements for Chapter II: All subjects completed 10 pre-fatigue landings from a 50cm height onto a force platform. The fatigue protocol followed and included repeated bouts of isometric contractions of the quadriceps in the squat position with the knee flexed to 60°. Subjects were deemed adequately fatigued when there force production fell below 50% MVC. Kinematic data was collected for frontal plane knee motion with an electric goniometer. Kinetic data was collected from the force platform on which the subjects landed. Surface EMG was collected from 5 muscles: vastus medialis, vastus lateralis, medial hamstring, lateral hamstring, and lateral gastrocnemius. Measurements for Chapter III: Four clinical measurements were taken: QA, ND, TFA, FT. Results Chapter II: The fatigue affect showed significance for the peak ground reaction force (F1,24 = 15.89; p < 0.05). No other variables were significant for a fatigue effect. No variables were significant for a gender effect. A significant interaction between fatigue and gender was found for the following variable: valgus range of motion from contact to maximum knee flexion (F1,24 = 7.35; p < 0.05), all other variables were non-significant. Results Chapter III: The correlation matrix for the non-fatigue group data revealed a significant relationship between FP30 and TFA (r = 0.39) and a significant positive relationship between FProm30 and TFA (r = 0.33) for the group. The correlation matrix for the fatigue group data revealed a significant positive relationship between FProm30 and TFA (r = 0.35) for the group. The correltation matrix for the men (non-fatigue) revealed a significant positive relationship between; FPmax and QA (r=0.61), FP30 and QA (r=0.55), and FPrommax and QA (r=0.51). During the fatigue condition, however, there were no significant relationships between the variables for the men. The correlation matrix for the women (non-fatigue) revealed a significant positive relationship between FProm30 and TFA (r=0.49). During the fatigue condition there were no significant relationships found for the women. None of the regression models yielded significant results. Conclusion: The results of this study are inconclusive. Peak ground reaction force significantly decreased with fatigue. This is probably due to altered landing strategies during the fatigued state. Although some clinical measures had significant positive correlations with frontal plane motions, none were found to be predictors of frontal plane motion. More research needs to be done in order to further examine the frontal plane motion variables and to determine the role they play in non-contact ACL injuries.Item The effects of individual and familial factors on mathematics achievement for young women(Texas Tech University, 2008-12) Baykina, Marianna; Burley, Hansel E.This study investigated the interaction between dimensions of individual student differences, familial factors, and parental involvement in their children’s academic education as accounting for female high school students’ achievement in mathematics and persistence in classes of advanced mathematics. The study utilized secondary data from the National Educational Longitudinal Study 1988. Individual student differences were assessed as differences in locus of control and math self-efficacy. Familial factors included the presence of older and younger brothers in the family. Parental involvement in their children’s schooling was assessed based both on parents’ reports and students’ reports. Statistical analyses included factor analysis and multiple regression analysis. Obtained results demonstrated that student individual factors had more impact on achievement in mathematics and in persistence in classes of advanced mathematics than parental involvement did, thus supporting the theoretical model of Bronfenbrenner (1999) with regard to proximity of influences. Presence of brothers in the family appeared not to have an effect on respondents’ mathematics achievement or mathematics-related choices.Item Understanding sexual abstinence among high school students(2007-05) Grozier, Michelle Rene; Edmundson, Elizabeth Walston, 1959-Politicians, scientists, and the general public all agree that adolescent sexuality has become a crisis in the United States. The 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Study reports that 46.8% of high school students have had sex and approximately 1 in 5 high school seniors reporting 4 or more sexual partners. Additionally, adolescents make up an estimated 25% of newly reported cases of STDs. Unfortunately, credible research on why sexually abstinent adolescents remain abstinent is minimal. The purpose of this study was to examine the differences between sexually active and sexually abstinent adolescents across a range of psychosocial factors. Selfefficacy to abstain, partner negotiation, condom use/negotiation, social norms, attitudes towards sex and condoms, beliefs about sex and condoms, knowledge, social support for condoms and sex, alcohol consumption, and HIV acquaintances. In addition, gender differences were explored for given reasons for abstinence. These variables included morals, norms, fears, waiting for the right person, waiting until older, embarrassment of having sex, fear of pain, and not having a significant other. Using cross sectional data collected from Safer Choices Time 3 measurement period during 1997. Results indicated the differences between abstinent and sexually active adolescents across the range of psychosocial variables were weak. Significant differences between abstinent males and females were noted for reasons for being sexually abstinent. Gender differences should be addressed in sex education programs.