Browsing by Subject "Depression"
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Item A longitudinal idiographic investigation of the relationship of self-schema to depressive and anxious symptoms(Texas Tech University, 1999-12) LaBrie, David WalterNomothetic approaches have identified the variables and the relationships of variables for diatheses-stressor models of anxiety and depression. The strength of findings is somewhat unclear, and meaning has potentially been clouded by methodological problems (Coyne & Whiffen, 1995; L. A. Clark, Watson & Mineka, 1994). At the individual level, detailed understanding of the interactions of processes resulting in depressive or anxious symptoms remains relatively unexamined. The present study employed a series of single-subject designs to clarify the relationship between schema activation, negative cognitions, and behaviors and symptoms, while accounting for the effects of coping. Results suggest facets of the tripartite model (L. A. Clark and Watson, 1991) may be repHcated at the level of the individual. Idiographic symptom items were often associated with tripartite model factors; however, these items also loaded on unique factors in addition to the factors of the tripartite model. P-technique factor analysis of coping strategies suggested similarity across individuals' patterns of coping. In all participants, limhed concurrent and/or lagged relationships between symptoms and coping strategies and schema activation were detected. Additionally, associations of symptom severity at various lags with symptom severity at lag zero were detected in three participants.Item A qualitative analysis of gender differences in the experience of depressive symptoms(Texas Tech University, 1996-08) Daughtry, Donald W.It is well established that adult women as compared to men are over-represented regarding depressive symptoms and unipolar depression by a ratio of approximately 2 to 1. This phenomena is consistent even when factors such as ethnicity, levels of income, education, and occupation are controlled. This investigation is phenomenologically focused, and aimed at the identification and exploration of latent constructs salient to adult women's and men's organization and expression of depressive symptoms. It employs a two-study research design that blends qualitative and quantitative research strategies. In Study One, an alternative research methodology, concept mapping, was used to elicit and graphically represent participants' perceptions of depressive experience. Participants in Study One were coTTTTunity college students (n = 59). Qualitative data reduction was also employed to derive a depressive symptom inventory based on these perceptions. In Study Two, this questionnaire was administered to a larger sample (n = 393) of carmunity college students. Participants in both studies were also administered the CES-D and the PAQ. Stepwise discriminate function and regression analysis were employed to determine the variation of Study Two participant responses regarding gender, level of depressive symptoms, and gender role identification. Evidence from the first study suggests that adult women and men differ regarding their conceptual organization of depressive symptoms. It seems that adult women's depressive experiences were arrayed along dimensions of intrapersonal/interpersonal difficulties and emotional constrictionemotional expression. Men's experiences of depressive symptcms seemed arrayed along the dimensions of social stress-social isolation and internal chaos-lack of confidence. Evidence from the second study suggests that at least some of the concept mapping clusters may generalize to a separate sample. Experiences of vegetative-negative physical appraisal contributed most significantly to the correct classification of adult women by gender. Experiences of burdened-paranoid contributed most significantly to the correct classification of men by gender. Results from the second study also suggest that experiences of despair were most related to adult women's level of depressive symptoms, while experiences of unhappmess were most related to men's symptom level. Results from the second study showed little support for the influence of gender role identification on participants expression of depressive symptomatology.Item A study of comorbidity in high school students: relationships of self-reported depressive symptoms, eating attitudes, body dissatisfaction, self esteem, and social support in adolescent males and females(Texas Tech University, 2005-08) Santos, Melissa; Richards, Steven; Hendrick, Susan S.; Borrego, Joaquin P.; Bleckley, M. KathrynDepression is one of the most common mental health disorders seen in adolescence. Low self-esteem, lack of social support and poor body image have been found to be risk factors for depression. However, these risk factors have not adequately explained why adolescent female rates of depressive episodes rise to almost twice that of males. One of many hypotheses proposed in the research is that the concurrent increase seen in eating disorders in adolescent females may be able to explain part of this precipitous rise in female cases of depression. This line of research proposes that a portion of the increase in adolescent depression in females can be explained, in part, by comorbid eating disorders symptomatology. The present study explored this hypothesis, along with related issues in comorbidity. This study had several aims. The primary focus of the study was to look at the comorbidity between disordered eating and depressive symptomatology in male and female high school students. A secondary aim of the study was to look at the relationship between disordered eating and depressive symptoms, along with several of their risk factors: low social support, low self-esteem and low body satisfaction. In particular, when the effects of these three risk factors are statistically controlled for, does disordered eating contribute above and beyond these risk factors to depressive symptoms? Finally, a modified version of the gender additive model was examined which hypothesized that a combination of disordered eating and body dissatisfaction variables combine to increase depressive symptoms in females. Two hundred and two high school students participated in this study. Results indicate that depression and eating disorders are two significant problems facing both male and female adolescents today. Forty percent of students met criteria for possible significant depressive symptomatology while 12% of students met criteria for possible significant disordered eating symptomatology. Comorbidity was seen in 12% of students who met criteria for significant depressive and disordered eating symptoms. The modified gender additive model was not supported in this study. Implications and limitations of this study and suggestions for future research are discussed.Item A study of comorbidity in high school students: Relationships of self-reported depressive symptoms, eating attitudes, body dissatisfaction, self esteem, and social support in adolescent males and females(2005-08) Santos, Melissa; Richards, Steven; Hendrick, Susan S.; Borrego, Joaquin P.; Bleckley, M. KathrynDepression is one of the most common mental health disorders seen in adolescence. Low self-esteem, lack of social support and poor body image have been found to be risk factors for depression. However, these risk factors have not adequately explained why adolescent female rates of depressive episodes rise to almost twice that of males. One of many hypotheses proposed in the research is that the concurrent increase seen in eating disorders in adolescent females may be able to explain part of this precipitous rise in female cases of depression. This line of research proposes that a portion of the increase in adolescent depression in females can be explained, in part, by comorbid eating disorders symptomatology. The present study explored this hypothesis, along with related issues in comorbidity. This study had several aims. The primary focus of the study was to look at the comorbidity between disordered eating and depressive symptomatology in male and female high school students. A secondary aim of the study was to look at the relationship between disordered eating and depressive symptoms, along with several of their risk factors: low social support, low self-esteem and low body satisfaction. In particular, when the effects of these three risk factors are statistically controlled for, does disordered eating contribute above and beyond these risk factors to depressive symptoms? Finally, a modified version of the gender additive model was examined which hypothesized that a combination of disordered eating and body dissatisfaction variables combine to increase depressive symptoms in females. Two hundred and two high school students participated in this study. Results indicate that depression and eating disorders are two significant problems facing both male and female adolescents today. Forty percent of students met criteria for possible significant depressive symptomatology while 12% of students met criteria for possible significant disordered eating symptomatology. Comorbidity was seen in 12% of students who met criteria for significant depressive and disordered eating symptoms. The modified gender additive model was not supported in this study. Implications and limitations of this study and suggestions for future research are discussed.Item Adherence to antidepressants and healthcare resource utilization and costs among medicare advantage beneficiaries with Parkinson’s disease and depression(2016-08) Ling, You-Li; Rascati, Karen L.; Barner, Jamie C; Wilson, James P; Lawson, Kenneth A; Suehs, Brandon TDepression is the most common comorbid psychiatric disorder in patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) and imposes a significant negative impact on PD. Studies have shown that antidepressants (ADs) may both treat depression and ameliorate its negative effects on PD. However, little has been reported regarding how improved adherence to antidepressants affects the outcomes among PD patients with depression. The purpose of this study was to examine antidepressant use patterns (adherence, persistence, switching, and combination therapy) and evaluate the associated healthcare utilization and costs in PD patients with comorbid depression. A retrospective cohort analysis using claims data from the Humana healthcare insurance plan (2007-2010) was conducted. Medicare Advantage with Prescription Drug (MAPD) Plan insured patients with ADs and a diagnosis of both depression and PD were identified and followed for one year. Healthcare resource utilization and costs were compared between adherent and non-adherent AD users while adjusting for demographic and clinical covariates. Adherence was defined as having at least 80 percent of AD coverage for the year, using proportion of days covered (PDC) calculations. A total of 856 PD patients initiating AD treatment were included. Less than half (N= 355 (41.5%) were considered adherent. The mean PDC (±SD) for antidepressants was 0.63 (± 0.31). The mean persistence (using a 30-day gap period) for antidepressants was 194 days. Having a regimen modification, (11% of patients had switching or combination therapy) was associated with a greater likelihood of being adherent (odds ratio = 2.97, 95% CI = [1.88, 4.68], p < 0.001) and a lower likelihood of discontinuation (hazard ratio = 0.63, 95% CI = [0.47, 0.84], p = 0.0016). After adjusting for covariates, adherent AD users had fewer all-cause and PD-related inpatient visits (all p < 0.05). Adherent AD users also had lower all-cause nursing facility, inpatient, emergency room (ER), and total costs (all p < 0.05) than non-adherent AD users. However, the results were no longer significant when assessing PD-related costs. In conclusion, regimen modification (switching, or combination therapy) to antidepressants was associated with better adherence and persistence in depressed PD patients. Adherent AD users had some lower healthcare utilization and costs than non-adherent AD users among depressed PD patients.Item An examination of the influence of sex and sex role identity on learned helplessness and depression(Texas Tech University, 1983-08) Danker-Brown, Pamela SAttempts have been made to explain why depression occurs more frequently in women than in men. A number of authors have focused particularly on the learned helplessness model of depression and have emphasized the possible effects of sex role identity on exposure and susceptibility to helplessness. The current research was designed to further explore the role of sex role identity in susceptibility to depression. Introductory psychology students who volunteered to participate were given a battery of questionnaires that assessed masculinity and femininity, desire for control over decision making on a team problem-solving task, preference for luck versus skill based tasks, and attributional style. Eighty males and eighty females were selected to participate further. Half of the males and females in each of the four sex role identity groups were exposed to unsolvable concept formation problems and responded to questions concerning attributions for their performance. All students completed measures of mood, self-esteem and an anagram task as measures of symptoms of helplessness. All of the students were then taken to another room to what they thought was a separate experiment and given additional measures of mood, self-esteem and generalizability of helplessness effects. Both sex and sex role identity were found to influence preference for control over decision making and for luck versus skill tasks. Male gender and high masculinity was associated with preference to have control over one's environment. The implications of these findings for differential self-exposure to depression producing experiences is discussed. Contrary to earlier research, only androgynous females appeared to have been affected by the helplessness manipulation. Sex and sex role identity did influence measures of attributions; however, these differences did not parallel differences found in susceptibility to helplessness symptoms. Results are discussed in relation to sex differences in reported rates of depression, the learned helplessness model of depression, and methodological considerations for research on sex or sex role identity differences in susceptibility to learned helplessness.Item An examination of the relations between mood-induced interpretations of ambiguity, cognitive errors, and girls’ symptoms of anxiety versus depression(2013-05) Hoskinson, Cassondra; Epkins, Catherine C.; Borrego, Joaquin P.; Clopton, James R.; Mumma, GregoryThe rates of comorbidity between anxiety and depression are quite high. For many people, symptoms often originate in youth. These two findings warrant research that examines anxiety and depression together among samples of youth. Cognitive theory has advanced our understanding of the etiology, maintenance, and treatment of these disorders; however, gaps in the research remain. To extend previous research, this study examined cognitive processes stemming from Crick and Dodge’s (1994) social information processing model and Beck’s models (Beck, 1976; Beck et al., 1985) of anxiety and depression. In line with theory, this study utilized a negative mood induction to prime negative schema, which has not been systematically utilized in previous research. Additionally, cognitive theory posits that salient stimuli should be processed differently than non-salient stimuli. Thus, the current study examined interpretation biases for salient and non-salient ambiguous scenarios in relation to anxiety and depression in a community sample of girls ages 11-14 years (n = 124). The study also examined interpretation biases for ambiguity and cognitive errors in relation to internalizing symptoms. The results revealed that after controlling for comorbid symptoms, threatening interpretations of ambiguity were not related to symptoms of anxiety or depression. The results also showed that when girls generated negative responses, negative interpretations of ambiguity were related to symptoms of anxiety and depression. Additionally, positive interpretations of ambiguity were related to depression but not anxiety. Importantly, the relation between interpretations biases and internalizing symptoms varied on whether girls responded to open-ended questions or whether girls generated specific responses. Lastly, evidence emerged that interpretation biases for ambiguity may be a construct distinct from cognitive errors, but this relation may only be true for models of depression and not anxiety. A notable limitation of the study included the use of a community sample, as opposed to at-risk or clinical samples, with low levels of symptoms. Also, anxiety and depression were highly correlated. Thus, in the analyses, a large proportion of the variance in the outcome variables was partialled out by overlapping affective symptoms.Item An Examination of the Relationship Between Death Anxiety, Optimism, Depression, and Anxiety(2011-08) Brown, Ashlee G.; Harter, Stephanie; Richards, Steven; Austin, Kathy; Cukrowicz, Kelly C.Although the topics of death anxiety and optimism have been studied extensively in the literature, there is a limited amount of research addressing both of these concepts together. Furthermore, there has not yet been an attempt to formulate a model to explain the relationship between these two variables. Death anxiety and optimism have also been shown to relate differentially to other measures of well-being, such as indices of psychopathology (e.g., Ayub, 2009; Fotiadou, Barlow, Powell, & Langton, 2008; Gilliland & Templer, 1985-1986; Kurdek & Siesky, 1990; Moreno, De La Fuente Solana, Rico, & Fernandez, 2008-2009; Neimeyer & Fortner, 1995; Peleg, Barak, Harel, Rochberg, & Hoofien, 2009; Pollak, 1979). When conceptualized through Kelly‘s Personal Construct Theory (1955), depression and anxiety are emotions signaling transition within constructs, the presence of which may affect the relationship between optimism and death anxiety. This study examined whether depression and anxiety were mediators in the relationship between death anxiety and optimism through the use of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). This study demonstrates that depression/anxiety mediate the relationship between optimism and death anxiety, and that the fully mediated model is the preferred model.Item An initial examination of interpersonal family therapy for children with depression and/or anxiety(Texas Tech University, 2004-05) Eskridge, Laura KurtasThe present study evaluated the effectiveness of Interpersonal Family Therapy with two pre-adolescent children (aged 8 to 9 years) using a replicated, single-subject time series design. One participant reported elevated symptoms of depression and average symptoms of anxiety at pre-treatment while the second participant met DSM-IV (APA, 1994) diagnostic criteria for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). Prior to treatment, and at two-month intervals throughout treatment, participants and their families completed measures designed to assess psychological symptomatology, cognitive functioning, interpersonal functioning, adaptive behavior, and family functioning. Participants and their families also completed idiographic measures semi-weekly prior to, during, and following treatment. Bi-monthly measures were completed throughout treatment and 2, 4, and 6 months post-treatment. Clinically reliable change was observed post-treatment on child-rated nomothetic measures of depression, anxiety, and competence for both participants. Parent-rated measures also exhibited clinically reliable change for some measures of child and parent symptoms. Two IFT components, the Cognitive Functioning Component and the Family Functioning Component appeared to exert positive effects on measures assessing their targeted construct. The Cognitive Functioning Component and the Interpersonal Functioning Component, moreover, appeared to exert positive effects on constructs not targeted by the components, respectively. A few measures, either in a lagged or concurrent relationship, predicted symptom scores for both participants. Specifically, for one participant, family issues predicted child generalized anxiety, as rated by both the participant and his grandmother. For the second participant, ratings of social skills and thinking errors were important predictors of child anxiety. Results have implications for treatment and treatment outcome researchItem Anger Suppression and Depressive Symptoms among Chinese Women in the United States(2010-01-14) Chen, SylviaThis study was designed to remedy the current lack of information on the causes of depression among Chinese women in the United States. It is based on an integrated understanding of depression, anger, female gender socialization, acculturation processes, and Chinese cultural values. More specifically, this study aims to investigate the depressive symptoms in this population using a psychoanalytic conceptualization of depression as anger "turn-inward." The researcher hypothesized that after controlling for the effects of female gender role identification and acculturation level, anger suppression has a direct positive effect on depressive symptoms. It was also hypothesized that female gender role identification has a direct positive effect on depressive symptoms. Statistically significant strong positive relationships were found for both relationships. Results also suggested that acculturation level has a direct negative effect on depressive symptoms. However, neither the Chinese culture orientation nor the European American culture orientation was found to have a statistically significant effect on depressive symptoms. It is worth noting that the results of this study revealed that 90% of the variance in depressive symptoms was explained by variables included the path model in this study. Recommendations for future research and clinical practice are also discussed.Item Assessing the diathesis-stress model in pre- and early adolescent girls and an examination of core beliefs as predictors of depression(2009-08) Rosenberg, Valerie Faye; Stark, Kevin DouglasDepression is one of the most common psychological disorders and may be considered as one of the most prevalent forms of emotional/psychological illness among children. The prevalence of depressive disorders tends to rise dramatically during adolescence. Cognitive diathesis-stress models maintain that depression is produced through an interaction between cognitive vulnerability and negative life events. According to Beck, core beliefs are at the core of cognitive vulnerability. After the occurrence of a negative life event, the core belief is activated and influences how the individual interprets the negative life event. Beck maintains that three core beliefs are central to the development and maintenance of depressive disorders: the belief that one is helpless, unlovable, and/or worthless. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a coding system for a storytelling task could reliably assess Beck’s core beliefs. In doing so, this study sought to build upon previous research on the relations between negative life events, core beliefs, and depressive symptomatology among pre- and early adolescent females. Participants were 130 girls ranging in age from 9 to 14. All girls completed a self-report measure of life events and a projective story-telling measure that was used to assess their core beliefs. Participants also completed a semi-structured diagnostic interview, which served as the primary measure of depressive symptom severity. In support of previous research, both negative life events and negative core beliefs uniquely predicted the severity of depressive symptoms. Consistent with Beck’s cognitive model, the helpless and unlovable core beliefs uniquely predicted severity of depressive symptoms, although the worthless core belief did not. Further examination indicated that the helpless core belief was a more powerful influence on depressive symptoms than were the unlovable and worthless core beliefs. Contrary to Beck’s diathesis-stress model, however, negative core beliefs did not moderate the effects of negative life events on depressive symptomatology. For girls aged 9-11, however, a helpless core belief moderated the effects of negative life events on depressive symptom severity. Implications of these results, limitations, and future directions for research are discussed.Item Assessing the psychosocial risk factors for coronary artery disease: an investigation of predictive validity for the psychosocial inventory for cardiovascular illness(2009-08) Baker, Maria Kathryn; McCarthy, Christopher J.This dissertation investigated the psychometric properties and clinical applications of the Psychosocial Inventory for Cardiovascular Illness (PICI). The PICI is an inventory developed to measure the psychosocial risk factors for heart disease including anxiety, depression, stress, social isolation, and anger. The inventory was developed to measure the ways that each psychosocial risk factor contributes to the coronary artery disease process through the lifestyle behaviors and pathophysiological mechanisms with which they are associated. The primary purpose of the study was to examine predictive validity for the PICI. With support for predictive validity, the inventory may aid in early identification of individuals at increased risk for coronary artery disease (CAD) so that behavioral, psychosocial, and medical interventions can be implemented. Both healthy and cardiac samples were used in the inventory development and validation process. The PICI was administered in conjunction with similar inventories and physiological markers of CAD were collected including percent of coronary artery blockage and history of heart attacks. Item analysis and factor analysis were used to yield a 20-item PICI comprised of three subscales to include Negative Affect, Social Isolation, and Anger. It was hypothesized that the PICI subscales would predict group membership; whether or not a participant carried a diagnosis of CAD, and would be have a strong relationship to the physiological markers of CAD that were measured. Analysis revealed that the PICI was unable to predict diagnostic status and did not have a strong relationship with the physiological markers of CAD. Results suggest that the PICI has acceptable reliability and construct validity as demonstrated in the current sample, yet further investigation must be conducted to gain support for the instrument’s predictive abilities.Item Bajo El Poder?o Del Lenguaje: Capacidad Terap?utica De La Poes?a En Cuatro Poetas Depresivos Y Suicidas: Ra?l G?mez Jattin, Rodrigo Lira, ?ngel Escobar Y Julio Inverso(2014-07-25) Aguilar, Julio CMadness and art are two concepts that are quite often historically interrelated. The term ?madness? designates various mental ailments, depression being one of them (major depressive disorder or depressive episodes in their various forms and diagnostic categories). The prevalence of depressive disorders is common among poets, who find therapeutic value in writing poetry. However, a number of poets turn to suicide as a last resort in order to end a life full of emotional suffering. This dissertation focuses on the study of the lives and works of four suicidal poets who suffered depression: Ra?l G?mez Jattin, Rodrigo Lira, ?ngel Escobar, and Julio Inverso. Natives of four different countries in Latin America, these authors belong to the last two decades of the twentieth century. This study demonstrates the importance of poetic discourse to the depressive poet by contributing to current research on this disease as demonstrated by the use of introspection throughout the creative process. That is, the poet with depression finds relief from the progression of his depressive symptoms by exploring emotions and subsequently exposing his feelings. However, when the word, due to its semantic load, is employed with emphasis on its negative connotation, the effect strongly results in the worsening of the mental condition. Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders is conspicuous. Thus, depression alternates with other mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia and substance abuse. This is the case with the poets investigated in this study, as two (Lira and Escobar) suffered from schizophrenia in addition to depression, while all four suffered from addiction (alcohol and drugs). Concomitant diagnoses were the trigger for each of these poets to commit suicide. It was also found that in the case of depression, writing poetry was no doubt beneficial. However, when depression was compounded by other mental disorders, the therapeutic capacity of poetry was found to be relative.Item The benefits of mindfulness-enhanced expressive writing among depression-vulnerable individuals(2010-08) Baum, Emily Sylvain; Rude, Stephanie Sandra; Drum, David J.; Neff, Kristin D.; Pennebaker, James W.; Pituch, Keenan A.An impressive body of research indicates expressive writing (Pennebaker & Beall, 1986) produces physiological and psychological benefits. One study found that expressive writing decreases depressive symptoms among formerly depressed college students (Gortner, Rude, & Pennebaker, 2006). Gortner et al. (2006) argue that expressive writing may produce changes by reducing negative evaluations of emotional experiences and self-judgment, often associated with depression, through instructions encouraging participants to delve into their “deepest thoughts and feelings.” In other words, the standard writing instructions appear to send an implicit message that individuals be accepting and non-judgmental towards emotions and cognitions. The mindfulness literature suggests that making this message explicit may improve the preventative power of expressive writing in depression-vulnerable populations (Baer, 2003; Kingston, Dooley, Bates, Lawlor, & Malone, 2007; Teasdale et al., 2000; Toneatto & Nguyen, 2007). Therefore, the specific goal of the present study was to examine the effects of a mindfulness-enhanced expressive writing intervention among depression-prone individuals. Depression-vulnerable participants (e.g., dysphoric or formerly depressed) were randomly assigned to one of three groups. Although writing instructions varied for each group, all participants wrote for 20 minutes across a three-day period. The mindfulness condition received writing instructions that encouraged participants to be non-judgmental, accepting, and self-compassionate as they wrote about distressing events. Participants in the traditional writing condition received standard writing instructions, which consisted of writing about their deepest thoughts and feelings related to an emotional incident. Finally, students in the control condition were instructed to write about what they did the previous day. Results showed marginally significant decreases in depressive symptoms among participants in the mindfulness group compared to the control condition. In addition, results indicated that low suppressive depression-vulnerable individuals in the mindfulness condition marginally improved their cognitive processing biases compared to their counterparts in the traditional and control groups. Results failed to support hypotheses that predicted improvements on self-compassion, rumination, and mindfulness skills. Further, self-compassion was not found to mediate the effects of treatment on depressive symptoms and rumination. Obviously more research needs to be conducted, however preliminary results suggest that brief mindfulness interventions may be beneficial for a depression-vulnerable population.Item Breastfeeding plans, intentions, and interactions(Texas Tech University, 2008-08) Thomas-Jackson, Shera C.; Hart, Sybil L.; Reifman, Alan; Boylan, Lee M.This study explores the relationships of demographics and psychosocial factors on breast feeding plans, intentions and mother-infant interactions. Breastfeeding provides many benefits to both mother and child, therefore, understanding the influences on breastfeeding decisions is important for understanding the breastfeeding relationship. This thesis explores the demographic influences on a woman’s breastfeeding practices and plans, and further explores the influence of psychosocial factors on intended breastfeeding duration. Women (N=160) were recruited within the first 48 hours post-partum from a county hospital in the southwestern United States. First, the relationship of demographics and psychosocial factors and their impact on a woman’s breastfeeding experience in the hospital, and her long term breastfeeding plans are explored. This relationship is explored with a path analysis using AMOS software (Arbuckle, 2006). Demographics variables including socio-economic status, maternal age, maternal education level, marital status, and ethnicity are factors used in this model. Psychosocial variables in the model include maternal depressive features and maternal-fetal attachment. Socio-economic status, maternal age, education, and marital status are related. In addition, women with higher socio-economic status and married have higher rates of exclusive breastfeeding following delivery. Women planning to return to work planned to breastfeed for fewer months, whereas women exclusively breastfeeding in the hospital planned to breastfeed for more months than women who provided formula supplementation in the hospital. Women with lower education level experienced more depressive features early postpartum. Depressive features did not impact feeding plans or intentions. A multiple group comparison was performed in order to compare marital status and ethnicity. No group differences were found in either comparison model. However, when comparing the married vs. unmarried model maternal-fetal attachment negatively predicted a woman’s plan to return to work. Psychosocial factors were not found to influence breastfeeding practices. In a 10-14 day follow-up study, using a sub-sample (N=45), the relationship of depressive features at 10-14 days and breastfeeding self-efficacy on duration of a videotaped feeding was explored. Women were interviewed and videotaped breastfeeding when the infant was 10-14 days old. A partial correlation was used to examine this relationship while controlling for demographic factors. Depressive features and breastfeeding self-efficacy do not have a relationship with the length of time a woman is available to breastfeed her infant or the amount of time an infant actually breastfeeds. Depressive features and breastfeeding self-efficacy do have a significant relationship. Women with higher depressive features were found to have lower breastfeeding self-efficacy.Item Can developmental changes in inhibition and peer relations explain why depressive symptoms increase in early adolescence?(2010-12) Buck, Katharine Ann 1985-; Dix, Theodore H.Early adolescence is a period marked by increases in internalizing problems, particularly depression. In childhood, the rates of depressive symptomatology are between .6% and 1.7%, but by adolescence, rates rise to 8.0%. Two key correlates of adolescent depression are behavioral inhibition and poor peer relations. Yet, it is unclear whether these factors simply co-occur with depressive symptoms or are instrumental across development in regulating them. In this study, using data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care, we examine whether increases in inhibition in late childhood may undermine peer relationships in predicting increases in adolescent depressive symptoms. Specifically, we test whether inhibition promotes depressive symptoms by undermining two aspects of peer relationships – popularity and friendship quality. Findings revealed that increases in inhibition from childhood to adolescence lead to increases in adolescent depressive symptoms. Decreases in popularity mediated the relation of inhibition, friendship quality and increases in adolescent depressive symptoms.Item Character Strengths, Self-Schemas, and Psychological Well Being: A Multi-Method Approach(2007-05-21) Berman, Jason Scott; Moore, Dean BertPositive Psychology is a recent movement within academic psychology that broadens the scope of psychological science to include the correlates and causes of human flourishing as credible topics for investigation. One major area of inquiry in positive psychology is the study of character strengths and virtues. Character strengths are virtuous, nomothetic traits, such as kindness, gratitude, vitality and hope some of which each person individually possesses much like a written signature leading to the name, "signature strengths." The current research investigated ways that such signature strengths were integrated into an individual's overall self-concept through self-schemas. Self-schemas are personally important, domain specific, self-definitions that organize and guide the processing of self-related information from the individual's social experience. The content of self-schemas (e.g. "I am independent" "I am kind" "I am lovable") varies widely among individuals (because past experiences vary) and therefore people have divergent views of self chronically accessible or salient to guide current life experience. The primary research question of this study was whether individuals for whom signature character strengths were a salient or highly accessible part of their self-schemas would experience increased psychological well-being and decreased depressive symptoms. Self-schemas are assessed through both self-report and non-self-report measures (e.g. reaction time, free recall, recognition, likert self-description scales) which are helpful for character strengths research that has typically relied on self-report data. Psychological well-being, an outcome variable in the current study, is a concept similar to life satisfaction. Reaction time, free recall, recognition memory and self-report measures were used to assess the salience of strengths within participant self-schemas. Participants were 298 university students. Results largely indicated that individuals with character strengths highly accessible within their self-schemas predicted increased well-being and decreased depressive symptoms with self-report methods as the most consistent predictors. These results demonstrated that character strengths operate at the level of self-referential processing and that signature strengths, highly salient within self-schemas, meaningfully related to increased emotional well-being and global happiness. Ideas are discussed of ways to open clinical psychology's traditional focus on the pathological self to include a self rich in character strengths and virtues.Item The colors of depression : is it more than just being blue? : an exploration of emotional reactivity in depression(2007-12) Ellis, Alissa Joan, 1981-; Beevers, Christopher G.Two studies are presented which expand on previous research on the Emotion Context Insensitivity (ECI) hypothesis evident in Major Depressive Disorder. Specifically, these studies address limitations of this research by examining the emotional reactivity of depressed individuals when they are exposed to emotionally evocative stimuli requiring active participation in personally relevant tasks. Depressed and nondepressed college students were exposed to two stressful, aversive tasks in Study 1, and were given either highly positive or negative feedback on a performance-based test in Study 2. Results of the two studies were somewhat inconsistent. Study 1 demonstrated that depressed individuals experienced a potentiation of negative emotion (i.e. anger), while in Study 2, ECI was supported. Reasons for the discrepancy are discussed; however, taken together, they point to the importance of emotion dysregulation as a maintenance factor for the disorder.Item Coping with Depression: Examining How Exercise, Social Support, and Other Strategies Relate to Depressive Symptoms(2011-08) Dempsey, Cynthia J. W.; Richards, C. Steven; Hendrick, Susan S.; Hendrick, Clyde A.; Cohen, Lee M.Research indicates young adults (ages 18 - 25) are at a high risk of developing depressive symptoms (Richards & Perri, 2002). This population exhibits poor utilization of mental health reatment services (The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2008). Research has suggested implementing self-help strategies for dealing with one's depressive symptoms is better than doing nothing, and these strategies are most effective with milder levels of depression (Menchola, Arkowitz, & Burke, 2007). The current study examined the relationships between depressive symptoms, coping strategies, exercise, and social support in young adults not participating in mental health treatment. One hundred and twenty -one introductory to psychology students completed the study. Avoidant coping, exercise, positive social support, and negative social support were found to be related to current depressive levels. Specifically, avoidant coping and negative social support were related to more depressive symptoms, while exercise and positive social support were related to fewer symptoms. Avoidant coping was also found to be the strongest predictor of depressive level and had the most influence on change in depressive level. Moreover, positive and negative social support were found to be independently related to depressive symptoms, with negative social support being the stronger of these two. Finally, positive social support from friends was found to be more predictive of current depressive level than positive support from family. The implications of these results will be discussed.Item Cortisol reactivity following pharmacological “clamp” exposes women’s vulnerability to major depressive disorder(2016-05) Jin, Shuo; Josephs, Robert A.; Beevers, Christopher G.Stress-evoked hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis—typically measured via cortisol activity—is a major risk factor in the pathogenesis of major depressive disorder (MDD). However, the standard laboratory assessment of stress reactivity—the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)—reveals no sex differences, despite the finding that women experience MDD at about twice the rate of men. One possibility is that HPA axis responses to the TSST are at or the near physiologic ceiling. If true, then down-regulation of the HPA axis prior to TSST administration might reveal the expected sex difference in HPA axis response. To this end, we hypothesized that suppression of HPA axis response using dexamethasone would reveal the sex difference in TSST-evoked cortisol reactivity, thus supporting the role of hypercortisolemia in the pathophysiology of MDD. Prior to TSST administration, 92 healthy, never-depressed participants (50% female) were randomized to receive either two placebo pills, or 2mg dexamethasone and 80mg propranolol. Cardiovascular (heart rate) and HPA axis (cortisol) responses were assessed before, during, and after TSST administration. Replicating previous work, analyses revealed no sex differences in cortisol reactivity in the placebo condition. However, as hypothesized, relative to men, women showed greater TSST-evoked HPA axis reactivity in the drug condition. This sex difference was not explained by sex differences in depression, anxiety, anxiety sensitivity, or history of adverse childhood experiences. By describing conditions under which sex differences in acute-stress hyperreactivity will emerge, the current study lends support to the role of stress-evoked hyperreactivity in the pathophysiology of MDD.